Slavery and Indentured Servants Essay Example for Free

Slavery and Indentured Servants Essay PART ONE Question 2: Thomas Jefferson feared the growth of manufacturing mainly because he knew that America land compared to Europe’s land wasn’t as adequate and sufficient enough to manufacture our own goods and we would produce different results. Jefferson stated in the â€Å"Republican Thomas Jefferson Celebrates the Virtue of the Yeoman Farmer, 1785† document that â€Å"In Europe the lands are either cultivated, or locked up against the cultivator. Manufacture must therefore be resorted to of necessity not of choice, to support the surplus of their people† (Jefferson, 1). Also, Jefferson kept the lower class in mind and he knew that a lot of lower class families couldn’t afford to buy and sell manufactured goods. Therefore, Jefferson focused more on a nation of commercial agriculture and independent farmers, so that the low class families could work and toil for their needs. Jefferson also believed that people wanted to manufacture their own goods for the wrong reasons. For instance, Jefferson stated that people â€Å"depend on land for the casualties and caprice of customers† (Jefferson, 1). However, Alexander Hamilton’s view of America’s socioeconomic future differed from Thomas Jefferson because Hamilton dreamed of transforming the United States into a manufacturing giant like Great Britain. Hamilton was against commercial agriculture and independent farmers because he felt that â€Å"the separation of occupations causes each to be carried to a much greater perfection, than it could possibly acquire, if they were blended† (Hamilton, 1). This statement proves true to me because if everyone did the same occupation, less people would try as hard to succeed and there would also be fewer opportunities for people. Diversity brings forth a greater changer and it has more significance. If a society focused solely on complete agriculture the result and produce would vary for numerous of reasons. One reason for example is location, which can be referred to by the temperature. According to Hamilton â€Å"the difference of seasons, in the countries which are consumers make immense differences in the produce of their own soils; in different years; and consequently in the degrees of their necessity for foreign supply† (Hamilton, 2), as well as other natural problems that may occur such as lack of soil and land. Therefore, in order to secure a stable and consistent market, one would need to agree with Hamilton and set up manufacturing establishments. In my opinion, I think that both men have correct and valid point and opinions. Today, American political system expresses both elements of their philosophies. PART TWO Question 3: The thought of coming to North America for indentured servants seemed like a dream to many because it was an answer or at the very least a solution to their many problems. According to Divine textbook, indentured servants are â€Å"individuals who are contracted to serve a master for a set number of years in exchange for the cost of boat transport to America† (Divine, 26). Also in exchange for their transportation were food, lodging, clothing, and other necessities that were provided as well. Before immigration to North America indentured servants lived a very poor life in their country and suffered immensely. Most English immigrants faced poverty, unemployment, lack of clothing and food, and even shelter. But upon entering into North America most indentured servants (but not all), received the opposite of what they expected, hoped, and dreamed of and instead experienced negative results within this new land. According to the document â€Å"Our Plantation is Very Weak†, which is a letter from Richard Frethorne written to his parents during his experience as an indentured servant in Virginia in 1623; it displays extreme suffering and pity. As the title implies, his plantation was very weak due to the many death and sicknesses that the English carried over with them. For example, â€Å"For we came but twenty for the merchants, and they are half dead just; and we look every hour when two more should go† (Frethorne, 1). Therefore, they transitioned from poor suffering adults in England to the continuation of suffering as becoming servants, indentured servants. Furthermore, Frethorne begged for his parents to redeem his indenture and if not possible then at the very least that they would send some money to purchase him food. From reading this letter I really saw how much he and the other indentured servants suffered. It was so severe that the English cried out that they wished â€Å"that they were in England without their limbs-and would not care to lose any limb but to be in England again† (Frethorne, 1). Also, Frethorne quoted that â€Å"he has eaten more in [one] day at home than what he has eaten there for a week† (Frethorne, 2). These quotes really demonstrated the disparity of the indentured servants in Virginia and Frethorne’s true desire of wanting to return back to England, which wasn’t so bad after all compared to the horrible new land. However, in contrary to Frethorne, George Aslop’s writing in â€Å"They Live Well in the Time of their Service† during 1663 in Maryland document was viewed more positively than Frethorne’s outlook. He actually and surprisingly agrees with servitude. Aslop wrote, â€Å"For I’m certainly confident, that there are several Thousands in most Kingdoms of Christendom, that could not at all live and subsist, unless they had served some prefixed time† (Aslop, 2); he found servitude necessary for better living. I think it is very interesting how Frethorne’s and Aslop’s outlook on being a servant is very different. Aslop was an indentured servant for four years and instead of viewing it as enslavement he viewed it as simply serving because he was more focused on the benefits and not the circumstances. For example, â€Å"And what’s a four year’s Servitude to advantage a man all the remainder of his dayes, making his predecessors happy in his sufficient abilities, which he attained to partly by the restrainment of so small a time?† (Aslop, 2) Nonetheless, I have to keep in mind that what they experienced were in different locations (Virginia/Maryland). For instance, according to Aslop Maryland had it easier compared to other colonies, â€Å"For know, That the Servants here in Mary-Land of all Colonies, distant or remote Plantations, have the least cause to complain, either for strictness of Servitude, want of Provisions, or need of Apparel† (Aslop, 3). Also, Aslop’s document was written after his servitude as an indentured servant and Frethorne’s letter was written during his servitude. Therefore, Frethorne was more focused on his present situation because that was what he was currently enduring and dealing with. As for Aslop, who was currently enjoying the fruits of his labor therefore all of the negative experiences that he may have had meant less to him now that he survived. Also, another important difference between Frethorne and Aslop is that Aslop wasn’t necessarily a typical indentured servant because he had prior experience as an artisan or mechanic, which is more beneficial. Aslop noted, â€Å"Now those Servants which come over into this Province, being Artificers [craftsmen], they never (during their Servitude) work in the Fields† (Aslop, 3). All in all, these are the life of an indentured servant before, during, and after immigration; as well as how their life changed from that in which it was in Europe. Compared to the life of a slave, I personally view indentured servants as a form of slavery. One difference that slavery and indentured servants have to me is that slavery never had a guaranteed ending for the slaves. In most cases, in order for a slave to become free they had to escape; and if caught most often slaves were killed without any negative repercussions to the master or caregiver. Unlike indentured servants who had a signed contract guaranteeing that after they served a certain amount of years they would become free. However, if an indentured servant decided to escape, if caught death was not the punishment. According to Gottlieb Mittelberger document, â€Å"Work and labor in this new and wild land are very hard† indentured servants simply had to keep serving or at worst get sold to another master. â€Å"If such a runaway has been away from his master one day, he must serve for it as a punishment a week, for a week a month, and for a month half a year. But if the master will not keep the runaway after he has got him back, he may sell him for so many years as he would have to serve him yet† (Mittelberger, 3). Some similarities between slaves and indentured servants were that they both endured extreme hardships beginning on their voyage in the ship to their arrival on the plantations. Also, they both were sold to slave owners and masters. â€Å"No one is permitted to leave the ship except those who pay for their passage or can give good security; the others, who cannot pay, must remain on board the ships till they are purchased, and are released from the ships by their purchasers† (Mittelberger, 1). According to the Virginia Slave Laws, indentured servants were allowed to marry and were allowed to own property, unlike slaves. Also, another difference of the treatment of slaves that differs from the treatment of indentured servants is that slaves were allowed to be stripped naked and whipped but indentured servants were not. In summary, the more slaves endured severe things then the better it was for indentured servants, their status improved drastically compared to the rigid treatme nt of slaves. Some of the main factors that contributed to the waning of indentured servitude and the growth of American slavery is that the supply of white servants fell sharply, which included many factors. To replenish its labor force, planters turned to enslaved Africans. Also, Virginia and Maryland’s land became less attractive as land grew scarcer which is why many immigrants began to migrate to different colonies. Something that I found interesting within the Virginia Slave Laws is that black slavery took root in the Americans slowly. â€Å"There was a small number of Africans that already lived in Virginia before 1619, the year a Dutch ship sold some twenty blacks to the colonists. But it was not until the 1680’s that black slavery became the dominant labor system on plantations here. By 1640, only 150 blacks resided in Virginia and in 1650, 300. But by 1680, the number rose to 3,000 and by 1704, to 10,000† (Virginia Slave Laws, 1). Contrary to my assumptions in which I thought that slavery happened rapidly. In conclusion, indentured servants suffered just like slaves did. As seen above slaves and indentured servants shared commonalities as well as some divine differences.

Environmental impact sustainability

Environmental impact sustainability Introduction Emissions from shipping contribute significantly to the concentrations of harmful air pollutants in Europe. There are, still, technical methods which these pollutants could be reduced for 80-90 per cent. These methods are cost-effective compared with land-based sources. Such reductions are needed for protecting health and the environment, and for shipping to develop into a more sustainable kind of transport. Air emissions have been a major issue for many years between political and shipping groups. More recently, though, the political climate has toughened with the subject being raised from a matter of local pollution to one of global warming. Exhaust emissions from land transport and electricity generation are already heavily regulated within very low limits. Shipping has not yet been greatly affected and the emissions are growing with the increasing sea-borne trade. Shipping consumes about five per cent of global oil consumption which leads to global NOx emissions of about 12.57 million tonnes / year, and about 10.54 million tonnes / year global SOx emissions. Obviously, stricter air pollution control regulations will come for shipping. Yet it is not known which emissions types will be regulated, to what level and when. World shipping has been reported as generating some 438 million tonnes / year of CO2 which is equivalent to about 1.8 per cent of global CO2 emissions. Increasing emissions The emissions of air pollutants from ships engaged in international trade in the seas surrounding Europe Baltic, North Sea, north-eastern part of the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea were estimated to have been 2.6 million tons of sulphur dioxide and 3.6 million tons of nitrogen oxides (NOx) a year, in 2000. While pollutant emissions from land-based sources are gradually coming down, those from shipping show a constant increase. Even after the application of MARPOL Annex VI, which sets limits on the sulphur content of marine fuels for the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and the English Channel, emissions of SO2 from international shipping are expected to increase more than 42 per cent by 2020, and those of NOx by two thirds. In both cases, by 2020, the emissions from international shipping around Europe will have exceeded the total from all land-based sources in the 27 member states combined. It has been estimated that about 90 per cent of the total SO2 and NOx emissions from ships in the North Sea, including the English Channel, originates from a zone of approximately 50 nautical miles (about 90 kilometres) from the coast line. International shipping within a distance of 100 nautical miles from the coast was estimated to be a source of 97 per cent of the total in the North Sea. Air quality health,acidification, eutrophication Particles SO2 and NOx can become converted into sulphate and nitrate particles, which are very small and among the most frequent of airborne particles. Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is associated with increased mortality (especially from cardio-vascular and cardio-pulmonary diseases) and sickness. According to the European Environment Agency, up to 45 per cent of Europes urban population are exposed to PM10 levels (particles of 10 micrometres or less) exceeding the forthcoming EU standards (EEA, 2004). It has been estimated that exposure to particulate matter in outdoor air leads to about 100,000 deaths annually in Europe , that the effect of PM on life expectancy may be in the order of one to two years. Ship emissions are estimated to contribute between twenty and thirty per cent to the air concentrations of secondary inorganic particles in most coastal areas. Ground-level ozone Nitrogen oxides contribute also to the formation of ground-level ozone, which damages vegetation as well as human health. In the second half of the 1990s, almost all of Europes urban population were exposed to ozone concentrations above the limit value for the protection of human health. It has been estimated that about 75 per cent of the urban population in southern Europe, and 40 per cent in the northern part, lived in cities where the ozone levels exceeded the EU target value of 120 micrograms per cubic metre (mg/m3) for more than 20 days. Shipping emissions contribute remarkably to the formation of ground-level ozone, especially in the Mediterranean region, where increased concentrations resulting from ships NOx emissions amount to 16-20 mg/m3. The high concentrations of ozone in the Mediterranean region do not only affect human health and crop harvests, but also pose a threat to the regions important tourist industry. Acidification In 2000, the depositions of sulphur and nitrogen exceeded the critical loads for acidic substances on more than 260,000 square kilometres (about 20 per cent) of sensitive forest ecosystems in the EUs member states. Emissions from ship traffic contribute to exceed of critical loads of acidity by more than 50 per cent in most of the coastal areas along the English Channel and the North Sea, in the Baltic Sea along the coast of Germany and Poland, and also in large parts of southern Sweden and Finland. Also, there are a large number of grid cells in northern Europe where ship emissions are responsible for more than 90 per cent of exceed critical loads for acidity. Eutrophication Nitrogen oxides lead to eutrophication, which affects biodiversity both on land and in coastal waters. In 2000, the depositions of nitrogen exceeded the critical loads for eutrophication on 800,000 square kilometres (about 60 per cent) of sensitive terrestrial ecosystems in EU. Also, there are a large number of areas in northern Europe where ship emissions are responsible for more than 90 per cent of exceed critical loads. In the Mediterranean, ships emissions contribute more than 50 per cent of exceed critical loads in parts of Greece, Italy, and Spain. Although most of the SO2 and NOx emitted from ships operating in international trade get deposited over the sea, shipping is the largest single source of acidifying and eutrophying result over many countries in Europe. Corrosion Air pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and ozone, accelerate the rate of weakening of a large number of various materials. Buildings and monuments made of limestone and some kinds of sandstone are especially sensitive to corrosion from acidic substances. Also metals become corroded more quickly in an acid environment. Ozone is known to speed up the disintegration of textile materials, leather and rubber. Climate change Emissions from ships also contribute to global warming. An estimate of the change in net irradiance at the atmospheric boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere (radiative forcing) due to CO2 emissions from ships indicates that ships may account for 1.8 per cent of the global. Additionally, according to a study made for the IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee, the radiative forcing resulting from increased levels of ground-level ozone due to NOx from international shipping are highly likely to produce positive forcing effects that will contribute to global warming and that could be in the same range as (or larger than) direct forcing from CO2 (Henningsen, 2000). Modes of Transport and Emissions Truck versus ship emissions Comparison of the environmental performance of different modes of transport is difficult, but by tightening down the comparison to a few air pollutants, some conclusions can be made. In terms of todays average vehicles and fuel, a ship will emit out 30-50 times more sulphur per ton-kilometre than a truck. When diesel becomes even cleaner in 2005, the difference increased to 150-300 times. Trucks advantage over ships even if ships are run on oil with a sulphur content of 1 per cent. This comes from the fact that the highest allowable sulphur content of diesel oil for road traffic has been gradually brought down by regulation. As from 2000 it was lowered in the EU to 350 ppm (parts per million), and in 2005 it is further reduced to 50 ppm. A further reduction to below 10 ppm is anticipated by 2010 such fuels are already being placed on the market. On the other hand, the average sulphur content of marine heavy fuel oil used in European waters is about 2.7 per cent, i.e. 27,000 ppm. Regarding to nitrogen oxides, ships release about twice as much NOx per ton-kilometre as the latest truck models today, and the difference is set to increase (again see Table 3). In 2005, the emission standards for trucks in the EU were cut from the present 5.0 to 3.5 g/kWh, and in 2010 to 2.0 g/kWh. According to a recent report, the burning of marine heavy fuel oil gives rise to high emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Because of its high content of polycyclic aromatics, this type of fuel is classified as cancer-causing and harmful to the environment. If we compare to a heavy diesel-driven truck, the PAH emissions from a ship using marine heavy fuel oil are about 30 times higher per energy unit. i.e. if the energy output of a ships engine is 40 times of a truck engine, the PAH-emissions from a fairly large vessel entering a port will correspond to those from about 1200 heavy trucks. Energy Plants vs. Ships Sulphur emissions from land-based stationary sources are in the EU regulated by several instructions, directive 1999/32 on the sulphur content of liquid fuels, directive 2001/80 on the limitation of emissions from large combustion plants, and directive 1996/61 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control. According to directive 1999/32, the maximum allowed emissions from all oil-fired plants must not exceed the equivalent of using heavy fuel oil with a sulphur content of 1 per cent. For gas oils, including for marine use, the limit are set stricter, at a maximum of 0.2 per cent, and it is further reduced to 0.1 per cent as from January 2009 (Figure 3). Any new large combustion plants (i.e. with a thermal capacity of more than 50 megawatts) built after 2003, according to directive 2001/80, keep their SO2-emissions below levels equivalent to maximum sulphur contents in fuel oil of between 0.1 and 0.5 per cent. The bigger the plant, the stricter the emission limit value will apply. International action so far Although some countries, such as Sweden and Norway, have taken steps to tackle the problem of ships emissions independently, on the whole, little has been done about it. Shipping is an international business, it would be logical to try and bring global agreement for control of its emissions, and an attempt has been made in the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO). After years of negotiation, agreement was reached in 1997 on an air-pollution annex to the MARPOL 73/78 Convention. But this agreement was so fragile that it was obvious it would have little effect. Annex VI establishes a global sulphur cap of 4.5 per cent for bunker fuel, and it designates two so-called sulphur emission control areas (the Baltic Sea and the North Sea), where fuel used by ships must be below 1.5 per cent. It also suggests emission standards for NOx for diesel engines with a power output greater than 130 kilowatts, but these standards are so weak that virtually all new engines are already in compliance. Following its confirmation by 15 countries representing the 50 per cent of the gross tonnage of the worlds merchant fleet, Annex VI came into force in May 2005. In practise this will mean that the 1.5-per-cent sulphur limit apply to all ships in the Baltic Sea as in May 2006, while the corresponding requirement for the North Sea was delayed until 2007. 2008 Amendments (Tier II/III)à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Annex VI amendments adopted in October 2008 introduced (1) new fuel quality requirements beginning from July 2010, (2) Tier II and III NOx emission standards for new engines, and (3) Tier I NOx requirements for existing pre-2000 engines. The revised Annex VI enters into force on 1 July 2010. By October 2008, Annex VI was ratified by 53 countries (including the Unites States), representing 81.88% of tonnage. The voting rules of the MARPOL convention, as well as experience to date, make it unlikely that possible further moves by the IMO will result in any significant emission reductions in the near future. Protocols for reducing emissions under the Convention on Long-Range Trans boundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) do not cover those from international shipping. Also, the emissions of greenhouse gases from international shipping are not covered by the Framework Convention on Climate Change or its Kyoto protocol. Although it has long been held within the European Union that shipping is a matter for the IMO, the Commission has recently been investigating the economic, legal, environmental, and practical implications of coordinated EU action for reducing the emissions of air pollutants from ships. This initiative has been encouraged among others because the EU directive on national emission ceilings required the Commission to present a program of action for reducing emissions from international maritime traffic before the end of 2002. CO2 emission control methods Water injection Water injection is a method for cooling the combustion chambers of engines by adding water to the entering fuel-air mixture, allowing for greater compression ratios and largely eliminating the problem of engine knocking. This effectively increases the octane rating of the fuel, and performance gains can be obtained when used in combination with a supercharger or turbocharger, altered spark ignition timing, and other modifications. Many water injection systems use a mixture of water and alcohol (usually 50/50), partly because the alcohol is flammable, while water is not; in addition, the alcohol serves as antifreeze for the water. The initial injection of water cools the fuel-air mixture fairly, which allows more mixture to enter the cylinder. Greater effect comes later during combustion when the water takes in, significant amounts of heat energy as it converts from liquid to gas, increasing piston pressure and reducing the peak temperature with its resulting NOx formation as well as the amount of energy absorbed into the cylinder walls. The duration of combustion is said to be longer. An interesting side effect that has been reported is that water injection effectively steam cleans the engine interior, resulting in less carbon excess build-up. Hot carbon deposits are cause of knocking. Eco Silencer The Eco Silencer design has undergone several years of testing and shipboard trials that have proven the systems ability to reduce SOx exhaust emissions and remove soot particulate as well as reduce exhaust noise. Depending on the vessels engine configuration, the Eco Silencer has the ability to reduce SO2 exhaust emissions by up to 90 % with a minimum performance guarantee that will allow burning the maximum 4.5% sulphur fuel and still surpassing the regulated reduction to 1.5% sulphur fuel. The acidic gasses, and particulate removed from the exhaust gas are pass through a water treatment system is designed to filter wastes on a continuous basis, and to provide outlet water that is environmentally safe. Reducing emissions of NOx There are various methods for reducing NOx emissions, differing somewhat in cost and effectiveness. Selective Catalytic Reduction, SCR It can reduce the emissions of NOx by more than 90 per cent, but may require the use of low-sulphur fuel. When retrofitted it replaces the exhaust silencers. Nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen gas by spraying urea or ammonia into the gases before they pass through a catalytic converter. Reduction costs are generally below 600 euro per ton NOx reduced, lower if the equipment can be installed while the ship is being built. There are now more than fifty ships fitted for SCR. About half of them are Swedish, and most of the others are frequent operators at Swedish ports. This is largely a result of the environmentally differentiated fairway charges and port dues that has been used in Sweden in since 1998. HAM, Humid Air Motor A technique for preventing the formation of NOx, during combustion, by adding water vapours to the combustion air. Performance is unaffected either by the quality of the bunker oil or by engine workload. By reducing the consumption of fuel and lubricating oil, HAM has the advantage over Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) of somewhat lowering operating costs instead of increasing them. The method is able to reduce NOx by 70-80 per cent at a cost apparently similar to that of SCR. Shore-side electricity While docked at the port, ships shut off their propulsion engines, but use their auxiliary engines to power refrigeration, lights, pumps and other equipment. These auxiliary engines are usually powered by high-sulphur marine heavy fuel oil or in some cases by lower-sulphur marine gas oil, resulting in significant emissions of air pollutants. One possible alternative measure that specifically aims to reduce emissions from vessels in port is to plug them up to shore-side electricity so that they no longer need to run their auxiliary engines. This solution is not has problems though i.e. it requires investments and certain modifications to be made in the ports and on-board vessels. Systems for supplying shore-side electricity is nothing new they have been in use for decades in a few ports and for certain types of vessels. Experience from the Port of Goteborg, among others, has shown that the realities of handling shore-side electricity systems are simple, if modern high-voltage systems are used. The entire procedure for switching from on-board generated power to shore-side electricity is done in less than ten minutes, including the phasing in of the new electricity supply and closing down of the on-board auxiliaries. In a recent Swedish study, the direct costs for shore-side electricity were found to be two to four times higher than the direct cost of generating electricity on-board by auxiliary engines running on heavy fuel oil. However, the study also evaluated the external costs that emissions of air pollutants give rise to through damage to health and the environment, and these are significantly lower for vessels that are connected to a shore-side electricity supply. Depending on the fuel (Heavy Fuel Oil or Marine Gas Oil) and the type of shipping service examined, the external costs for on-board generation of electricity were found to be between 15 and 75 times higher than those for shore-side electricity connection. (The shore side electricity was assumed to be generated by modern coal-fired power plants). A comparison between direct electricity generation costs and estimated external costs of on-board generation and shore-side electricity, respectively, showed that the benefits associated with shore-side electricity supplies clearly outweigh the costs. The study concludes that shore-side electricity can effectively reduce air pollutant emissions and noise from vessels in port, thus providing environmental and health benefits. It is also recommended that if a wide-scale application of shore-side electricity systems were to be envisaged, it would be useful to develop a common international practice, or international standards, for such systems. A Community strategy toreduce air pollution from ships The EU strategy to reduce the emissions of air pollutants from sea-going ships was adopted by the European Commission in November 2002. It contains a broad series of objectives, proposed actions and recommendations for bringing about such reductions over the next 5-10 years. According to the Commission, the cost of reducing emissions from ships is considerably lower than that of further abatement on land. The strategy document includes a list of actions that the Commission itself intends to take, as well as those it recommends to other parties. Here are some examples: International action Within the International Maritime Organization the European Commission will continue to press for tougher measures to reduce ships emissions. It recommends member states to ratify MARPOL Annex VI as soon as possible, and to support a co-ordinated EU position pressing for tighter international standards in regard to the global sulphur cap and NOx emissions. EU regulation on emission standards On November 20, the European Commission published a proposal to amend directive 1999/32/EC so as to limit the sulphur content of marine fuels marketed and used in the EU. The recently adopted directive 2004/ 26/EC (amending directive 1997/68/EC) sets standards for emissions of NOx, PM and CO (Carbon Monoxide) for new non-road engines marketed in the EU, including engines for use aboard vessels operating on inland waterways. These new standards are gradually strengthened over the time period 2006-2014. As concerns global emission standards for ships engines, if the IMO has not proposed tighter international standards for NOx by the end of 2006, the Commission will consider bringing forward a proposal for reducing such emissions from seagoing vessels, in line with the proposed US standards put forward by the US Environment Protection Agency. EU regulation on economic instruments The European Commission has yet to come up with proposals, in the context of an EU framework for infrastructure charging, for the development of an EU system of differentiated charges for all modes of transportation. A charging scheme for maritime transportation will be part of that framework, and be developed on the basis of ships environmental performance, including atmospheric emissions. Later, the Commission considered the possibility of developing emissions trading regime (or regimes) to achieve incremental reductions in ships emissions in EU sea areas, particularly for NOx. The feasibility of trading in ships emissions will however first have to be demonstrated. Voluntary measures The European Commission urges the international bunker industry to make available significant quantities of marine heavy fuel oil with a maximum sulphur content of 1.5 per cent in states bordering on SOx Emission Control Areas, and also to make available at least some marine fuel of any grade with a sulphur content of 1.5 per cent in all world bunkering ports, so as to be able to supply ships destined for an SOx Emission Control Area. The Commission urges port authorities to consider introducing voluntary speed reductions, and to require, facilitate, or provide incentives for ships to use land-based electricity or clean on-board power while in port. References * Ahlbom, J. and Duus, U. (2003). Rent skepp kommerlastat. GÃÆ' ¶teborg, Sweden. (An English abstract is available at: www.gronkemi.nu/skepp.html) * Amann, M., Bertrok, I., Cofala, J., Gyarfas, F., Heyes, C., Klimont, Z., SchÃÆ' ¶pp, W., Winiwarter, W. (2004) Baselinescenarios for the Clean Air For Europe (CAFE)Programme. Final report to the European Commission, DG Environment, in October 2004. Contract B4- 040/2002/340248/MAR/C1. (www.iiasa.ac.at/rains/CAFE_files) * Beicip-Franlab (2002). Advice on the costs to fuel producersand price premia likely to result from a reductionin the level of sulphur in fuels marketed inthe EU. European Commission Study C1/01/2002. (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/index_en.htm) * Concawe (1993). The Europan environmental and refiningimplications of reducing the sulphur contentof marine bunker fuels. Report No. 1/93. Concawe, Brussels, Belgium. * de Leeuw, F., Moussiopoulos, N., Bartanova, A., Sahm, P., Pulles, T. Visschedijk, A. (2001). Air quality inlarger cities in the European Union. A contribution to the Auto-Oil II programme. Topic report 3/2001. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark. (www.eea.eu.int) * Entec (2002). Quantification of emissions from shipsassociated with ship movements between ports inthe European Community. Study for the European Commission (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/index_en.htm) * Henningsen, R.F. (2000). Study of greenhouse gas emissionsfrom ships. Final report to the International Maritime Organization. MARINTEK, Trondheim, Norway. * IMO (1998). Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78: Regulationsfor the prevention of air pollution from shipsand NOx technical code. Publication IMO-664E, London, UK. * Kaesong, P. (1999). Economic instruments for reducingemissions from sea transport. Air pollution and climate series No. 11. The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain, Goteborg, Sweden. (http://www.airclim.org) * DieselNet (2010) International: IMO Marine Engine Regulations (http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/inter/imo.php)

Cry , the Beloved Country: Post-Colonial Literary Theory :: Cry the Beloved Country Essays

Cry , the Beloved Country: Post-Colonial Literary Theory Bibliography w/4 sources Cry , the Beloved Country by Alan Paton is a perfect example of post-colonial literature. South Africa is a colonized country, which is, in many ways, still living under oppression. Though no longer living under apartheid, the indigenous Africans are treated as a minority, as they were when Paton wrote the book. This novel provides the political view of the author in both subtle and evident ways. Looking at the skeleton of the novel, it is extremely evident that relationship of the colonized vs. colonizers, in this case the blacks vs. the whites, rules the plot. Every character’s race is provided and has association with his/her place in life. A black man kills a white man, therefore that black man must die. A black umfundisi lives in a valley of desolation, while a white farmer dwells above on a rich plot of land. White men are even taken to court for the simple gesture of giving a black man a ride. This is not a subtle point, the reader is i mmediately stricken by the diversities in the lives of the South Africans. The finer details of the book are what can really be looked at in terms of post-colonial theory. The fact that a native Zulu, Stephen Kumalo, is a priest of Christianity and speaks English, communicates how the colonized are living. Neither of these practices are native to his land, but they are treated by all as if they were. Small sentences are woven into the plot to further this point, such as the reoccurring European greetings. Another emphasis is on the learned customs of the people. In court when Kumalo finds that his son will be hanged, he is touched that a white man breaks the custom to help him walk outside. When the white boy raised his cap to Kumalo, he, "felt a strange pride that it should be so, and a strange humility that it should be so, and an astonishment that the small boy should not know the custom." (p. 234). The fact that this small courtesy was taken so heavily is overwhelming from a post-colonial point of view. Kumalo is so accustomed to the way of the land that he does not dare think that he deserves even this respect. Napoleon Letsisi is the character that reveals the significant political belief of the author.

Around the World in a Heart Shaped Balloon :: Personal Narrative Writing

Around the World in a Heart Shaped Balloon When I was a little girl I adored going to the movies. I especially loved movies with a romantic plot, and a happy ending. As a child, I remember sitting in the theatre and being mesmerized by everything that was happening on the screen. Films like The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, and Beauty and the Beast made a concrete impression on my mind. Even at such a young age I loved the romance of these stories. The thought of one day being carried off by a handsome prince was a very fascinating concept for me as a little girl. Beauty and the Beast was my favorite. My grandparents took me to see it for the first time. After that, I was hooked. I got anyone I could think of to take me to the movie theatre. That year for my birthday I received everything Beauty and the Beast. I received a comforter, sheets, pillowcases, posters, a Beauty and the Beast lamp, even a night light! I was in heaven. Now that I think about it, my family may have gone a bit over the top, but at the time I was the happies t kid on the entire block. That year we painted my walls light pink, and I had a white bunk bed, and white furniture, and everything else was Beauty and the Beast. This was just the beginning of my love affair with fairy tale romance. In the years following my Beauty and the Beast craze I went through a number of different phases. Each one very different, but all of them centered around romance. There was a period of time where I loved movies like Disney's Robin Hood, and Ever After. All the different tellings of the mystical King Arthur story, which we’d been studying in school, captivated me. And, for a brief time I became mildly obsessed with the Medieval Times, and magical romance. The Shakespearian play â€Å"A Mid Summer Night’s Dream† is filled with magic and romance. It became the inspiration for me to plan out a mural on an entire wall of my room. I took a pencil, and began to sketch out my vision. A forrest scene with brightly colored fairies surrounding the marriage of the beautiful Fairy Queen to a half man half donkey creature. On the opposite side I wanted to paint the two love sick couples in the play sleeping in the grass beneath the trees.

Drug Testing in the Federal Workplace Essay -- Substances Employment Pa

In September 1986, President Reagan issued Executive Order 12564. This was done in an effort to make the Federal Government a drug free work place. He believed that persons who used illegal drugs were not suitable for Federal employment. The order required the heads of governmental agencies to establish both a voluntary and mandatory testing program to determine the use of illegal drugs by employees in sensitive positions. Sensitive position employees were defined to include employees granted access to classified information and individuals serving under presidential appointment. It further included Law enforcement officers and other positions that the agency head determined involve law enforcement, national security, the protection of life and property, public health or safety, or other functions requiring a high degree of trust and confidence. Executive Order 12564 allowed the testing of federal employees when there is reasonable suspicion of an employee using drugs. Testing can be done if there is an examination authorized by the agency regarding an accident or unsafe practice. It can also be used as part of a follow-up to counseling or rehabilitation for illegal drug use through an Employee Assistance Program (EAP). A follow-up two months later to the order spelled out the requirements for random drug testing of employees in sensitive positions. Agency heads were to take into consideration the nature of the agency mission; it's employee's duties, and the efficient use of agency resources. Also taken into consideration was the danger that could result from the failure of an employee to fulfill his responsibilities sufficiently. Right of Privacy Most Americans probably feel they have a right to privacy concerni... ... Bibliography Cozetto, Don A., Theodore B. Pedeliski and Terrence J. Tipple. Public Personnel Administration. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996. Federal Employees Almanac, 45th Edition: Federal Employees News Digest, 1998. Inaba, Darryle S. and William E. Cohen. Uppers, Downers, All Arounders. Ashland, Oregon: Cinemed, 1989. International Labor Office. Conditions of Work Digest, Volume 12, Number 2,Workers Privacy Part III: Testing in the WorkPlace. Geneva: International Labor Office, 1993. Potter, Beverly and Sebastian Orfali. Drug Testing at Work: A Guide for Employees. Berkeley: Ronin Publishing, 1990. Savage, David, "Federal Workers Lose Bid to Halt Drug Testing," Los Angeles Times, 3, March 1998, Sec. 1A, p.10. Thompson, Robert Jr., Substance Abuse and Employee Rehabilitation. New York: Bureau of National Affairs, Library of Congress, 1990.

Human Capital, Inequality and Growth in Transition Economies Essay

Human Capital can be defined as the accumulation of competences and knowledge in individuals gained through education and experience, not forgetting their personality attributes. All these put together enable individuals effectivley perform profitable and revenue generating economic activities. Such competent persons in a society are at times reffered to as a workforce or laborforce. Some examples of investments in humans that result in human capital are education, health and training. As Becker says, human capital investments raise the earning ability of individuals, improve health and add to an individuals’ good habits. The term inequality generally refers to disparities in access to opportunities or resources amongst individuals, groups or even countries. Some of the common causes of inequality are; gender, race, age, geographical location and even cultural practices. Inequality normally results in observable differences in levels of growth and development of individuals or from one society to another. Education is the process through which individuals are able to acquire basic skills necessary for life. It is the understanding and interpretation of knowledge that empowers individuals to develop a logical and rational mind. The rational mind is then is able to determine relationships amongts pertinent variables, thereby fostering understanding. Education involves completing curriculum based fixed time achievements, aimed at building professional capabilities. At the individual level, it develops the capabilities and potentials of the individual so as to prepare them to be successful in a specific society or culture. In this case therefore, education serves an individuals’developmental needs. When education happens at the societal level, it is thus defined as a process by which society transmits to new members the values, beliefs, knowledge and symbollic expressions that make communication possible within that society. In this sense, education serves a social and cultural function. Roland (2000) says that transition economics, also known as transformation economics refers to a state whereby economies have gradually changed over from socialism to capitalism, an example being the former socialist economies. There is a shift from standardized prices and monetary theories to institutions geared towards a higher efficiency. This transition can only thrive if there is sustained government and political support. The Soviet Union in full, is known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), It was characterised by a single communist political party, a planned economy and the KGB security agency which closely monitored activities within the union. USSR was formed in December 1922 and by 1956, it was comprised of 15 countries with Moscow being the capital city. The fifteen countries included; Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Dissolution of USSR begun in 1985 and continued upto 1991, with the fifteen member states gaining their independence a few months before the Soviet Union collapsed in late 1991. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, restructuring of the administrative functions and development of a market based system was immediately embarked on through Yeltsins’ shock program. The aim was to improve standards of living, ensure equitable resource allocation, create new production avenues, promote liberalization, and provide incentives through privatization activities. However, a free and liberalised market did not come without ny challenges. By 1992 Russia suffered a deppressed life expectancy, twenty five percent of the population lived in abject poverty, there were low birthrates, and a downward sloping Gross Domestic Product (GDP). However, due to increased investment activities, exploitatation of valuable natural resources and increased business development activites, the economy begun to make significant improvement. The aim of this paper is to explore how education as a factor of human capital and inequality influenced growth in transition economies, with respect to the former Soviet Union countries (FSU). Theoretical research Human capital with regard to education and levels of inequality both have an impact on the growth experienced in transition economies. This growth is therefore an end result of quality educational investments and equitable distribution and allocation of vital resources across a country. Such a hypothesis makes growth the dependent variable whose outcome is influenced by two independent variables namely; education and inequality. Observation of growth and development trends in transition economies and the developing world, have shown that education can have both positive and negative impacts on an economy. One of the positive impacts is that persons who possess the relevant knowledge and skills required by organizations are able to access better job opportunities as opposed to those who are poorly educated. In addition, high levels of education enable individuals to secure jobs in other countries, thus helping to alleviate the problem of unemployement in their mother country. Spagat (2002) observed that during Russia’s transition, intellectual individuals were more motivated to pursue more education opportunities and in return, became very successful in their careers. In regard to the economic transition in the former Soviet Union countries (FSU), educated parents who still held education in high esteem, were very focused on ensuring that their children acquired the same level of education as them or even higher. While on the other hand those parents who viewed education as a burden rather than an investment focused on the bare minimum, that is, basic education. The result of this attitude was that these particular families remained trapped at a basic education level and so was their access to income generating opportunities. Through education and training, individuals acquire problem solving skills and entrepreneur management skills which inturn, help them set up and operate successful ventures, in the process creating employment opportunities. In addition, as the field of education grows within a country with more universities, colleges, high schools and primary schools being constructed, more job opportunities are created in the education sector. Persons who are well educated are likely to secure better paying jobs, which inturn increases their purchasing power plus it increases the demand for goods and services available in the economy. The net effect of this, is creation of more job opportunites in the production and service sectors. These persons are able to improve their standards of living including those of their dependants. In addition, issues of health and fertility are decided upon from a knowledgeable point, (Newell and Reilly, 1999). Through education, individuals are exposed to society and they acquire important attributes and values that can help them enhance their capacity to interact and relate with other persons in society. As a result, they able to adapt and cope with the dynamics of the workplace. Last but not least, education as a contributor to human capital enhances economic growth and development in a country, since the human capital is equipped on how to exploit the countrys’natural resources profitably. Countries lacking this human capital are neither able to exploit their resources adequately, nor are they able to develop their economy at the desired pace. Barro (1998) argues that human capital enhances absorption and application of superior technologies from other countries. Young and educated persons under the guidance of the older folk are able to conduct research and development. The improved technology in a transitional economy enhances the speed and quality of production of goods and services, through improved and more cost efficient work processes. The young industries are in turn able to meet rising demands, both domestic and foreign hence increasing their revenues and taxes to the government. Munich et al (1999), argue that in a transition economy, government support and positive attitude towards investments in human capital is essential. The government has to allocate funds for example for building schools and also for enticing people to enroll in this schools. However, the maintenance of the enrollment levels is a continued process whose economic benefits are only realised over time as was seen in the Czech Republic. In support of this argument, Spagat (1995) warns that it is even though human capital takes years to accumulate, it actually takes a very short while to deteriorate, hence governments cannot afford to postpone this investment, even temporarily. The governments must ensure that education and other skills are transferred effectively from one generation to the next. Restructuring of education, needs to be done from the very beginning of the transition from socialism, in order to immediately improve educations’ quality. There is a multiplier effect that comes with better quality education. The first being an increased access to job opportunities, higher wages and consequently more tax revenue for the government. The major effect however, is that it sets the standards for future generations, both in terms of quality of education and future incomes, (Spagat, 2002). Fan et al (1999) said that the young people of Russia during the transition had little or no motivation to put effort to pursue education. This is because the education system had not been restructured to match the market-oriented system and therefore the returns were not high. World Bank (1995) accused Russia of concentrating on spewing out scientists and engineers instead of producing a mixture of professionals who would support the different sectors of Russia’s’ economy. They only increased between 1991 and 1994, but this human capital investment deteriorated again by 1996, (Brainerd (1998). In order to make ends meet, many dropped out of school and opted for jobs such as taxi drivers, street vendors and some even joined the Mafioso for a quick buck. All was not lost however, when we remember individuals like the Hungarian–American entrepreneur George Soros, who provided funds that would help these countries implement reforms for a better future. OECD (1996) advised that schools and tertiary institutions should not be the only avenues through which education is attained. OECD (1996) advised that adult learning should be encouraged in order to help the older generations access more income. In addition, pre-schooling of children below the age of formal schooling, which was a common feature of the FSU countries fostered child development and also prepared these children for formal education. In these former Soviet Union countries, the major advantage of pre-schooling their young children was in the fact that it freed the women to participate in economic activities, and it also reduced education disparities between children of the educated parents and those of the less educated parents. Micklewright (2000) wrote that investment in learning institutions ensures sustained educational gains. For example, in some of the Soviet Union countries, teachers earned wages so low that they spent their time looking for more income instead of teaching. In addition, repair and maintenance of the buildings was neglected and with lack of heating during winter, schools would be closed. The other problem was the shortage of textbooks. However, these countries tried to salvage the situation by offering meals at school between 1989 and 1996, in order to entice parents to take their children back to school. In countries such as, Yugoslavia, Armenia, Georgia, Tajikistan and Albania, the transition was characterised by serious geographical disparities caused by war, civil and ethnic strife. Facilities were destroyed, hundreds of families were displaced out of their homes and schools were closed, (World Bank, 1997b), thus slowing down the ongoing projects. Human capital is vital for growth of transition economies. Growth should be stimulated across all sectors of the economy and in each part of the country so as to rapidly raise the standards of living and reduce inequalities between urban and rural areas. Keen interest should be paid especially to rural areas, in order to eliminate the possibility of mushrooming of pockets of poverty across the country. According to Flemming and Micklewright (1999), ensuring that access to education is recognized by FSU countries as a human right as stipulated in international law, will greatly boost growth of human capital. Equal rights promote equal access to opportunities and it also reduces discrimination based on gender, race, religion or economic status. Income inequality rose in the Czech Republic and Russia and was very high between 1988 and 1996. In order to support a transition economy, Spagat (2002) suggests that a balance should be created between skilled and unskilled labour. This is because most young people either worked on a full time basis and neglected pursuit of higher education, or they pursued higher education and then begun working at a later stage. One of the negative impacts of education on a country is that by having too many educated persons, the labor market gets saturated thus resulting in a drop in the amount of wages that employers are willing to offer. In turn this acts as a demotivator of the labor force and may also result in brain drain whereby qualified personnel leave their mother country for better opportunities in other countries. The unemployed persons are normally seen resulting to social ills such as alcoholism, drug abuse and robbery amongst others. These social ills inturn dissuade local and foreign investors from putting their money in an unsafe country.

Marks & Spencer Natural Environment

1.0 Executive SummaryMarketing environment is very important for any given organisation as it relates to the macro environment, the microenvironment as well as the internal environment. The above sub types of environment are very important in the performance of any given organization. Marks and Spencer is affected by the three sub types of environment. The microenvironment at Marks and Spencer involves suppliers, consumers as well as customers, who deal directly with the organisation and impact on the performance of the organisation.The microenvironment will be discussed in length in this report with an aim of demonstrating how the natural environment operates. The macro environment as it relates to Marks and Spencer refers to the factors that influence the company’s performance but are out of control of the company. This touches on the legal aspects such as laws on environmental issues that impact on the operations of Marks and Spencer. Finally, the report incorporates intern al environment issues, which basically involve; men, money, machinery, materials as well as markets. The above are discussed with an aim of demonstrating how they interrelate to cause positive change in Marks and Spencer.2.0 Overview of the natural environment (Marks & Spencer)In a bid to address possible threats and challenges in regard to the natural environment of the organisation, Marks and Spencer has several plans in place as part of its strategic repositioning for future business scenarios. Plan A program at Marks and Spencer constitutes of a five-year, 100-point plan to tackle some of the biggest challenges facing the organisation in relation to the political, economic, social, and technological environment.The plan is designed to facilitate a smooth working relationship between the customers and the suppliers to; combat climate change, through initiation of programs, which embrace safe environmental practices bearing in mind that the company gets its raw materials from the environment and it has a corporate duty and responsibility to conserve the environment. This calls for the company to embrace modern business practices, which are environment friendly such as the use of fuels, which cause little or no pollution to the environment.3) Identify TWO areas of the natural environment likely to impact on Marks and Spencer in the medium termMarks and Spencer has embarked on initiatives to reduce wastage by realigning its production roles with emerging technologies, which ensure that there is little or no wastage of raw materials considering the fact that the rate of harvesting of raw materials from the natural environment is far much higher compared to the rate at which the natural environment is rejuvenating. By embracing wastage control methods such as recycling, Marks and Spencer is promoting a symbiotic relationship between the organisation and the local communities, who are affected by the actions of the company on the environment.The company is commit ted to safeguarding natural resources by putting in place several initiatives such as community-based environmental programs, which are aimed at enlightening the local community on the importance of preserving nature. In addition, the initiatives geared towards safeguarding nature have targeted all stakeholders including the employees because it is viewed that if every stakeholder understands and appreciates the individual role in safeguarding the environment, this would be beneficial not only for the sustainability of the organisation but also for the benefit of all.Trading ethically constitutes an important function in Marks and Spencer. This is important due to the fact that ethical practices are aimed at protecting the given organisation from harming any of its stakeholders. Marks and Spencer has a code of conduct as well as corporate responsibility policies, which guide the organisation in relation to its duties to the stakeholders.Marks and Spencer is committed to building a h ealthier nation by ensuring that it fulfils its social, political, legal, and environmental obligations to its stakeholders. As a retailer, they use a huge range of raw materials to produce our goods. Because of this, it is critical that the organisation manages the use of these materials sensitively and pays proper regard to how they affect natural habitats and bio-diversity.But making a difference here is not as simple as they would like. Change process in an organisation is a demanding and challenging process. It requires new types of standards to be set and adhered to across the world. As some materials – such as cotton and palm oil – are traded globally, the ability to affect change may at times be modest. There is a need for the organisation to work closely with suppliers, government bodies, environmental groups and local communities to promote sustainability.4.1 Description of the marketing strategy the organisation currently employs to accommodate the key featu res of the natural environment.The Marketing strategy would become the parameter for a company to be a successful company.Although environmental issues influence all human activities, few academic disciplines have integrated green issues into their literature. This is especially true of marketing. As society becomes more concerned with the natural environment, businesses have begun to modify their behaviour in an attempt to address society's â€Å"new† concerns. Marks and Spencer have been quick to accept concepts like environmental management systems and waste minimization, and have integrated environmental issues into all organizational activities. Some evidence of this is the development of journals such as â€Å"Business Strategy and the Environment† and â€Å"Greener Management International,† which are specifically designed to disseminate research relating to business' environmental behaviour.Marks and Spencer uses a green marketing strategy for purposes o f promotion of products with environmental characteristics so as to promote environmentally friendly behaviour amongst consumers. For Marks and Spencer the green marketing strategy applies to consumer goods in that the company promotes the concept of eco-tourism.The company has engaged in plans, which has seen product modification geared towards producing more environmentally friendly systems especially in the area of product packaging. Marks and Spencer has invested in production facilities, which significantly reduce wastage as well as preserving energy. In the same manner, the company has adapted ethical advertising policies, which aim at ensuring that every advertisement is considerate of environmental implications in terms of the decisions that consumers make. To this end, the company has participated in several forums and especially those organized by American Marketing Association (AMA) where is has shown support to consumer goods advocating for sustainable environment practi ces.4.2 Explanation as to why the above strategies are likely to be of the greatest future significance to the organisation.Social ResponsibilityHow a company is viewed by the public goes a long way in determining its future performance in relation to consumers. The strategies Marks and Spencer has adopted in a bid to promote natural environment can be seen as efforts geared towards good corporate social responsibility. Many firms are beginning to realize that they are members of the wider community and therefore must behave in an environmentally responsible manner by putting in place corporate social responsibility policies.Hence the reason why Marks and Spencer allocates huge budgets for its natural environment conservation efforts. This results in environmental issues being integrated into the firm's corporate culture. Firms in this situation can take two perspectives; 1) they can use the fact that they are environmentally responsible as a marketing tool; or 2) they can become re sponsible without promoting this fact. For the case of Marks and Spencer, the company has promoted the first perspective of promoting environmentally responsible practices.The strategies the company has adopted in as far as acting responsibly in relation to the environment have taken marketing related dimension. Despite pressure from the government through legislations aimed at protecting the consumers and the society at large, the impact has been felt at Marks and Spencer. Governmental regulations relating to environmental marketing and designed to protect consumers have in one way or the other contributed to Marks and Spencer’s decision to realign its production systems towards achieving less wastage, use of ethical advertisements, as well as engaging in raising the level of awareness on environmental issues is an indication that Marks and Spencer is reposition itself for future implications of government policies on environment.Specifically, Marks and Spencer has adapted t wo concepts of food miles and field to fork in a bid to respond to emerging situations.â€Å"Food miles† is a relatively new idea in the debate about sustainability. Typically it is taken to mean the distance travelled to move food from the place it is produced to the store where it's bought. But increasingly the definition goes wider, to include issues like locality, freshness, use of preservatives, packaging, choice, support for UK farmers and quality. Many environmental groups attach particular importance to food being produced close to where it is sold.Field-to-forkIn 2003, Marks and Spencer launched a new over-arching set of standards to cover the management of the supply chain for fruit, vegetables and salads. These were drawn up after consultation with suppliers, government bodies and other organisations and covers aspects of production from â€Å"field-to-fork†.The company has commissioned independent research to look at similar systems around the world. As a r esult, they believe our Field-to-Fork scheme goes beyond the British and European assurance schemes used by other retailers, being the first to include such a wide range of requirements. Their standards cover traceability, minimising pesticide use, ethical trading, support for non-GM foods and food safety.5.0 Recommendations for changes to the internal operations of the organisation to best meet their potential impact.Although Marks and Spencer has done a recommendable job in terms of promoting the natural environment, there is still room for improvement. The organisation particularly needs to work on its internal environment by; initiating more training programs for its human resources geared towards environment related issues. Secondly, the organisation needs to increase its budget allocated to environment conservation efforts. In addition, the organisation needs to invest in modern production technologies to further reduce wastage.There is also a need for the company to find last ing solutions to the management of materials especially in regard to conservation of its sources of raw materials. Finally, Marks and Spencer must look further from its traditional markets and diversify its brands to cover new markets as a potential source of increasing sales revenues, which will avail more money to be used in promoting the natural environment. The above can only be achieved by the organisation utilizing modern business analytical tools such as SWOT analysis, PEST analysis as well as Michael Porters Fiver Forces analysis so as to arrive at informed decisions, which are also sustainable.Referenceshttp://www.theage.com.au/ Accessed on 20/05/2007.